This paper was presented by EDD during the 6th World Parliamentarian' Convention on Tibet held on April 27 to 29, 2012; Ottawa, Canada
Conference Venue: Government Conference Centre, Ottawa, Canada
Introduction:
Transboundary commons
With an average elevation of 4500 meters above mean sea level, the
Tibetan Plateau physically dominates the geographical map of the world. The
whole plateau stretches for almost 3,000 kilometers from west to east and 1,500
kilometers from south to north. Since time immemorial, the plateau held the
Hindu Kush Himalayan Ice Sheet, considered as the largest ice mass and
reservoir of fresh water outside the two poles, hence the name ‘Third Pole’.
The Tibetan plateau even though very inhospitable to many species due to its
high altitude and extreme climates holds one of the most diverse plant and
animal species, some of which are unique to the Tibetan Plateau for instance Wild Yak, Tibetan Antelope and
medicinal plants such as Rheum palmatum
(Chumtsa), Frittilaria (Abhika) and
about 400 species of Rhododendron.
The Tibetan plateau is also known as ‘The Water Tower of Asia’ as
major rivers of Asia have their source inside Tibet. Glacial runoff from these
snow peak mountains and the underground aquifers feeds these rivers that flow
into India, Bangladesh, China, Nepal, Pakistan, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia and
Vietnam. For China alone, 30 percent of its fresh water supply is met from the
rivers flowing from Tibet. These rivers give hope to and sustain life of
millions of people downstream, from the arid plains of Pakistan and India to
the rice paddies of Southeast Asian countries. It is estimated that 1.3 billion
peoples live in the watersheds of these major rivers. Beyond the populations
residing in the watersheds of these rivers are the additional millions who
depend on monsoon rains drawn inland by the Tibetan Plateau. It was also
indicated that this Southeast Asian monsoon that recharges most of the rivers
downstream varies in intensity according the snow cover on the Tibetan Plateau.
Unlike any other country, almost the entire plateau of Tibet lies on
the permafrost soil and seasonally frozen grounds. For centuries, these
permafrost soils have acted like a sponge, conserving and managing the flow of
these mighty rivers. They have also been the store house for millions of tons
of carbon. Lying few meters above these
frozen soils are the Tibet’s rangelands, from the Northern Plateau of upper
Tibet to the extreme eastern edge of the plateau dominating almost 70 percent
of its total landscape. These rangelands represent one of the
last remaining agro-pastoral regions in the world. The
types of rangeland vary from alpine meadows and mountain scrub to mountain
sparse wood and mountain desert, which helps sustain domestic herds and nurture
a wide variety of wildlife species. These
alpine grasslands not only serve as feed to the wild ungulates but recent
scientific studies have revealed that they actually store more than 7400
million tons of carbon. These
inhospitable and cold pasture lands are made habitable through the co-existence
of the Tibetan herders and their yaks. Through their efforts they have
maintained the sustainable use of this area for many centuries.
Tibetan Highland
holds over 51 percent of total natural wetlands (excluding lakes and floodplains) in China. These wetlands are
dominated by Salt Marsh, Peat land and Freshwater Marsh. The Wetlands in Tibet
play a major role in regulating the flow of rivers by absorbing the excess water
during the summer and releasing it in the winter when the runoff is short.
Prevailing
Environment Situations:
Being one of the
earth’s most sensitive environments and a unique bio-geographical zone, a
healthy Tibetan Plateau benefits the entire Asian sub-continent. Over the past
five decades, the landscapes on the Tibetan Plateau have experienced much environmental
negligence and degradation. Some degradation is by natural phenomenon such as
climate warming, earthquakes and others due to human interference such as
resource extraction, unskillful policy implementations and infrastructure
developments.
In recent years on the Tibetan Plateau, there has been a continuous
rise in temperatures, almost twice the global average. This rise in temperature
not only accelerates glacial meltdown but also accelerates many natural
processes such as desertification, evaporation, shrinking and disappearance of
lakes, drying of wetlands, thawing of permafrost[1],
and reduction of flow regimes in many rivers.
Glacial retreat:
According to the Chinese Academy of Science, glaciers on the Tibetan
Plateau are melting at a rate of 7 percent annually and if the current rate
continues, two-thirds of the glaciers on the plateau will be gone by 2050. A
separate study by NASA revealed that 20 percent of Tibetan glaciers have
retreated in the past 40 years and more than 60 percent of the existing
glaciers could be gone in the next 40 years. Some recent studies have also
indicated that the black soot depositions on these glaciers are also responsible
for accelerating the rate of meltdown due to reduced surface reflection and
more heat accumulation.
Permafrost degradation:
Up until now, the low winter temperatures have well preserved the permafrost
soil and the seasonally frozen grounds on the Tibetan Plateau. The increase in
the winter temperatures as a result of climate warming slowly degrades or melts
the frozen earth. As such the soil loses moisture in spring before the growing
plants can access the water. This affects not only the crops but also the
native vegetation of Tibet, especially in wetlands and other low lying areas.
Apart from climate warming, human activities are also responsible for
destroying the permafrost cover as indicated in some research works conducted
on the Tibetan Plateau. The researchers cited examples of much higher heat
accumulations under the asphalt paved road compared to the natural
surroundings. They also indicated that the ground temperature has been
increasing noticeably leading to permafrost degradation.
End to Pastoral Nomadism and Grassland degradations
The implementations of different
grassland and land-use policies have severely affected these grasslands. For
centuries, the Tibetan nomads and herders have lived successfully with their
herds using only their local knowledge and by keeping a mobile lifestyle. For
some social scientists, nomadism, while often ridiculed as primitive or even
‘incomplete’ by outsiders, is in fact a highly sophisticated adaptation for
exploiting energy captured in the grasslands of the region.
The vital role played by the Tibetan pastoral nomads in maintaining
these pastures are acknowledged only in research articles, and the policy
makers often fail to understand these intricate relations since they judge
everything in black and white. The current grassland rehabilitation policy that
is implemented throughout Tibet referred to as the ‘Restore Grassland Policy’ or ‘tuimu huanco’ in Chinese, (meaning
closing pasture to restore grasslands) is restricting the mobility of the
nomads and blames their livestock for overgrazing the grasslands. In fact the
actual degradation or overgrazing of these grasslands started during the
commune system 50 years ago when all the herds were collectivized for one main
reason: more meat production (refer to Box for more detail). In recent
years, moving the nomads from the grasslands to state built housings is being
largely intensified and has now become the central measure in protecting these
grasslands.
China’s own scientists have now learned through patient observation
that the grasslands of Tibet, when grazed moderately and intermittently
actually maintain a higher biodiversity and healthier pastures. Many
researchers have indicated in their findings that depopulating these grasslands
and labeling the nomads as ecological migrants will not help to restore the
pastures.
Field observations conducted on these grasslands have revealed
positive connections between the grazing herds of the nomads and the grasslands.
The researchers say that abandoning these grasslands will lead to the
domination of the invasive species, reduce biodiversity, and do more harm for
the grassland which in turn would affect the permafrost soil.
According to Chinese state media, in "TAR" alone about
300,000 families involving 1.43 million Tibetan nomads and farmers have been
removed from their ancestral pastures into new permanent settlements. Another
185,500 families are expected to move into new homes by 2013.
|
According to the latest 2011 Qinghai statistical year book, the area
of Amdo region (Ch: Qinghai) affected by drought increased from 108 thousand
hectares in 2007 to 158 thousand in 2010. This clearly shows that the current policy
of removing nomads from the pastures to protect its water tower is failing
badly in terms of what was initially intended.
UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, Prof. Olivier De Schutter said
during his mission to the PRC (15 -23
December 2010) that, the herders should not, as a result of the measures
adopted under the ‘tuimu huancao’ policy, be put in a situation where they have
no other options than to sell their herd and resettle. On 6 March, 2012 at the UN Human Right Council in Geneva, Prof. Olivier
De Schutter spoke about his concerns regarding those people living in the
"new socialist" villages. He further added that, so far this policy of
resettling the herders and nomads among the Chinese has resulted to self-immolation
of many members from the newly resettled herding community.
Such extreme measures of sacrificing one's own life show unmistakably the
current Chinese policies are failing in all terms.
Tourism industry endangering the lives of Mogru Nomadic Clan
At China’s “atomic city” on
the shores of the greatest lake in Tibet, where China once tested nuclear
weapons for submarines, patriotic red tourists now come to see China’s military
triumphs. They also come to see the native Tibetans, who must dress as if they
are timeless nomads, people without history, forever smiling. Chinese tourists
like to be photographed with Tibetan children of the Mogru clan, perhaps not
even knowing that the land of the clan was taken to build the tourist
facilities, and the Mogru Tibetans have no source of income other than posing
for happy tourist snaps. Attempts b y the Mogru Tibetans to petition Beijing
and seek justice has come to nothing.
Resource
Extraction:
China refers to Tibet as 'Xizang' which literally means the western
treasure house. The Plateau's rich natural resources became a resource curse
for the local residents and its ecosystem. Since late 60's, these resources
have been exploited in various scales and mostly under very poor environmental
norms and regulations. The mining not only undermines the sanctity of the local
landscapes but also creates social tension and distrust when standard corporate
policies are not followed.
Tibetan communities try to put forward their grievances in numerous
petitions to higher authorities against the miners: they are either ignored or
harassed. After failing to respond adequately, the local residents then resort
to street protest and are immediately suppressed by heavy armed forces. Unlike
those protest related to environmental negligence and accidents in many parts
of China, those that occur in Tibet are classified as political and the
protestors are severely suppressed. In the frequent protests by Tibetan
villagers, quite often their immediate concern has been the damages done by the
miners to the local streams, rivers, landscapes and pasture land.
Over the past two years (2010 -2011), there have been more than 12
protests against mining activities that Environment Desk has documented and many
more remains unknown. With the recent announcement of more than 3000 potential
mining sites and many precious mineral deposits in Tibet, it is very likely
that there will be more such protests in the future if the miner's and the
local cadre attitude remain unchanged. The state itself is doing everything in
tapping these resources, as it is evident from the budget in the 12 FYP for
improving the resource extraction economy infrastructures such as highways,
railway lines, and hydropower plants. All these are essential to the smooth
operation and transportation of mineral ores to various smelters located in
distant mainland China.
So far, copper, chromium, gold and iron are the four minerals of
greatest interest to Chinese and other foreign miners. These are being mined to
different extents at various locations throughout the Tibetan Plateau. Over the
past few years, the Chinese state government has shown more interest and has
invested in the extraction of lithium ores (lithium carbonate) on the Tibetan
Plateau.
According to China Chemical Reporter, (2009), China’s demand for
lithium salt has grown rapidly, and lithium salt output capacity was expected
to increase to 60,000 ton/ yr in 2010. Most of the salt lakes containing
lithium resources (80% of the total reserves) are located in the western part
of the country. Drangyer Tsaga (Ch: Lake Zabuye) is a landlocked salt
lake located at an elevation of 4,400 metres in the Drongpa county of Shigatse
(Ch: Rikaze) district. In 2008, the
salt mine at this lake was regarded as the major source of lithium in China. Zabuye
Lithium High-Tech Co. Ltd. planned to expand its lithium salt output capacity
by 20,000 ton/ yr from 7,500 ton/ yr.
These days' rare
earth elements (REEs) are considered as one of the most important natural
resource for the modern world to make high-tech goods such as iPhones,
fibre-optic cables and missile guidance systems. The global demand for these
seventeen REEs is booming, tripling over the past decade from 40,000 to 120,000
tons. By 2014 its global demand is expected to hit 200,000 tons a year. At
present, China provides 97 per cent of the global supplies of rare earth
elements, but for several years China has been steadily reducing the amount of
material it makes available for export. According to a recent news article,
United States, European Union and Japan jointly accused Beijing of breaking
trade rules and lodged a complaint with the World Trade Organization that China
is monopolizing global supply of REEs.
Most of the
Chinas REEs are coming from a single mine in Inner Mongolia (Baotou Cho) and
few years back an article published in Environmental Geology[2]
mentioned that the concentration of REEs at the southern part of Nam-Tso Lake basin
(Ch: Namco basin) in central Tibet is much higher than the average values in
the whole of China and the world. But so far there has been no clear information
whether REEs are actually being extracted at Nam-Tso basin.
Such rich reserves of minerals resources attracts miners of various
scales who plan to make quick money and not bothering about the standard
environmental norms and laws stipulated in the PRC constitution and Law of
Regional National Autonomy [Article 9[i] and
26[ii]
(under the general principles of PRC constitution) and Article 27[iii], 28[iv], 45[v] &
66[vi] of
‘Law of Regional National Autonomy’].
Many Canadian companies are also attracted
towards the resource rich Tibetan Plateau (Table1). We fully hope these
companies will not follow the practices of Chinese miners by undermining the
sanctity of the holy landscapes and depriving the local Tibetans their right to
self determination and equal opportunities.
Table1. Canadian Mining and Exploration Companies
on the Tibetan Plateau
No
|
Name
|
Property/ ies in Tibet
|
Company website
|
1
|
China Gold International Resources
|
Gyama Mine, TAR
|
|
2
|
Eldorado Gold
|
Tanjianshan Mine, Qinghai
|
|
3
|
Inter-Citic
|
Dachang Gold Project, Qinghai
|
|
4
|
Lara Exploration*
|
Huangnan Project, Qinghai
|
|
5
|
Silvercorp Metals**
|
Nabao Project, Qinghai
|
|
6
|
Sterling Group Ventures
|
Danxiongcuo Salt Lake, TAR
|
|
7
|
Tri-River Ventures
|
Lianlong Project, Sichuan; Kunteyi Salt Lake, Qinghai
|
* the company stated (privately) that they'd like to get out of China
but their partner, the Western Mining Group, has failed to keep their agreement
regarding transferring an interest in the property. Lara invested $500,000 in
the project but never received the shares they were promised
** have sold 2/3 of the Nabao project but still retain 1/3 which they
hope to sell.
Tibetan water resources and
Chinese dams:
Rivers originating from Tibet flows to more than ten
countries and play a vital role in the environmental services and socioeconomic
of each country. These rivers (Table2) enable the Tibetan Plateau to become a
strategic platform in exercising its dominance over the lower riparian states.
Table2. Major rivers flowing from Tibet
No
|
Tibetan name
|
Common name
|
Watershed
Regions/ Countries
|
1
|
Machu
|
Yellow River
|
Tibet, China, Inner Mongolia
|
2
|
Drichu
|
Yangtze
|
Tibet and China
|
3
|
Zachu
|
Mekong
|
Tibet, China, Vietnam, Laos,
Cambodia, Thailand
|
4
|
Gyalmo Ngulchu
|
Salween
|
Tibet, China, Burma, Thailand
|
5
|
Yarlung Tsangpo
|
Brahmaputra
|
Tibet, India, Bangladesh
|
6
|
Macha Khabab
|
Karnali > Ganga
|
Tibet, Nepal, India
|
7
|
Langchen Khabab
|
Sutlej
|
Tibet, India, Pakistan
|
8
|
Senge Khabab
|
Indus
|
Tibet, India, Pakistan
|
9
|
Bhumchu
|
Arun
|
Tibet, Nepal, India
|
10
|
Lhodrak Sharchu
|
Manas
|
Tibet, Bhutan, India, Bangladesh
|
Source: DIIR, 2007
The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD)
has revealed alarming details on the sustainability of the Himalayan glaciers
in the time of climate change. According to their findings, the current trend
of melting glaciers suggests that the Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra and other
rivers across the northern India plains could most likely become seasonal
rivers in the near future, flowing only in monsoon season.
World Wide Fund
(WWF) for Nature, formerly known as World Wildlife Fund, named the Indus River
as one of the world’s ten rivers most at risk. The Indus which already faces an
acute shortage of water flow due to climate change suffered more obstruction
after China built a dam on the dying river (in Ngari, Western Tibet) without
informing the downstream countries - India and Pakistan.
So far China has dammed every major river and its
tributaries in Tibet and has unveiled plans to construct even more dams in the
coming years. In its 12 Five Year Plan (2011 -2015), hydropower projects are to
be prioritized and those that are not completed during its previous five year
plan are now scheduled.
The Chinese dam building boom and its water transfer
projects are creating additional worries to the lower riparian states,
especially in India where it was estimated that by 2030 the water demand will
be higher by 50 percent from the current demand of 740 billion cubic meters.
The Zachu or Mekong
River, originating from central Tibet through Yunnan Province in China and then
flowing through Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and finally ending its journey in
Vietnam is the lifeline for the Mekong-region countries. This river directly
supports approximately 70 million people along its basin from fishermen to
farmers.
The damming
activities along the upstream of Zachu/Mekong have significantly affected the
flow volume of the river. So far, the China has in total 21 Hydro Power
Projects on Zachu either built, under construction and under active
consideration in Tibet alone. Water user community downstream are turning their
frustration on the Chinese government whose damming projects on the upstream
Mekong River has greatly affected their lifestyles. Fishing boats are seen
stranded on the shores of dried Mekong River in Mukdahan Province and at Nakhon
Panam in Thailand. The livelihoods of the local fishermen and many other
communities from Cambodia are threatened by the reduced flow of the river but their
concerned voices are muffled by the aid their government receives from China.
Green NGOs in China
believe hydropower projects could bring economic development, but not
necessarily to the benefit of local people. They believe that today’s
insufficiently transparent policymaking mechanisms are maximizing the interests
of hydropower industry, officials and a small number of experts, while driving
ecological destruction, affecting local livelihoods and increasing the risk of
geological disasters. Chinese government policy is that the hydropower is the
cheapest source of electricity.
Not only are these rivers and tributaries dammed for generating
electricity but some are also polluted with chemicals and other toxins dangerous
for human consumption. For instance, the tap water of Kumbum monastery in Amdo
detected high concentrations of lead (Pb) due to a mining activity. This is not
an isolated episode, similar cases of mining chemicals polluting the natural
water supply are common where ever mining activities are prevalent.
Growing industrialization, population growth, and increasing levels of
consumption are placing heavy demands on water resources, which provide vital
support for the subsistence livelihood to millions of people. Currently, there exists no regional framework
or forum for South and East Asian nations to discuss or negotiate over water
resources, other than the Mekong River Commission which does not include China.
Looking Forward &
Recommendations:
Tibetan nomads are the expert custodians of the alpine pastures and
their knowledge and experience should be incorporated into rangeland management
practices. The Tibetan herders should be directly involved in the decision
making process or there should be at least a principle of collaborative
management attending to the needs of the pastoral nomads and herders alike.
Central Tibetan Administration (Dharamsala) welcomes development
activities related to social and economic upbringing of Tibetan communities
inside Tibet, but these developments besides being sustainable, should not
outweigh the preservation of the unique Tibetan culture, language and the
environment. These development projects should not spark off any social tension
and unrest amongst the Tibetan communities. The development projects should
first prioritize training the local Tibetans in their daily life skills and
technical know-how to participate in new economic activity and add value to
their customary economy.
A healthy and sustainable Tibetan Plateau would not only benefit the
entire Asian continent but also it helps in promoting peace and harmony within
the region, especially between two major emerging powers (India and China). This
is an important geostrategic factor.
The Tibetan Plateau is the land bridge connecting South Asia with East
Asia. The very survival of almost 1.3 billion people depends on the water
resources originating from the Tibetan Plateau. The impact on Tibet’s landscape
and its natural resources due to climate warming and human intervention will
threaten not only the future food security of many nations but also their
development.
Parliamentarians can help address the problems related to climate warming
and human interventions on the Tibetan Plateau and its consequences by raising
the issue in their own parliament and provide political, financial and
institutional support. To this end, we offer the following recommendations to all
the parliamentarians who are attending this conference in Ottawa:
1:
MONITORING.
Your
country, in collaboration with private and academic institutions, should
partner with Chinese and international scientific institutions to monitor
glacial retreat, temperature rise and carbon levels on the Tibetan Plateau,
with a goal of creating better models to understand warming trends and the
resultant impacts on permafrost, river flows, grasslands and desertification,
and the monsoon cycle.
2:
MITIGATION.
Your
government should engage with the Chinese government and NGOs to encourage a
systematic re-thinking of policies related to grassland management and nomad
resettlement. Changes in the ecosystem of the Tibetan Plateau will
require sound mitigation policies and on-the-ground stewardship, which must
include the integral participation of Tibetan stakeholders, primarily the
nomads and their indigenous experience in managing this land for
centuries.
3:
REGIONAL FRAMEWORK.
Your
government should promote creation of a regional framework on water security.
Such a structure would facilitate cooperative agreements among all riparian
neighbours that would promote transparency, sharing of information, pollution
regulation, and arrangements on impounding and diversion of river water.
[1]
In geology: permafrost soil is soil at or below the freezing point of
water (0 °C or 32 °F) for two or more years
[2] Heavy
metals and rare earth elements (REEs) in soil from the Nam Co Basin, Tibetan
Plateau. Chaoliu Li, Shichang Kang, Xiaoping Wang, F. Ajmone-Marsan, Qianggong
Zhang, Environ Geol (2008) 53:1433–1440.
[i] Article 9:[…the state ensures the rational use of natural resources and protects
rare animals and plants. Appropriation or damaging of natural resources by any
organization or individual by whatever means is prohibited.]
[ii] Article 26:[The state protects and improves the environment in
which people live and the ecological environment. It prevents and controls
pollution and other public hazards...]
[iii] Article
27:[…destruction of grasslands and forests by any organization or
individual by whatever means shall be prohibited. Reclamation of land from
grasslands or forests by destroying grass or trees shall strictly be
prohibited.]
[iv] Article
28:[In accordance with legal stipulation, the organs of self-government of
national autonomous areas shall manage and protect the natural resources of
these areas…]
[v]Article 45:The organs of self-government of
national autonomous areas shall protect and improve the living environment and
the ecological environment and shall prevent and control pollution and other
public hazards, so as to bring about the coordinated development of population,
resources and environment.
[vi] Article 66:[...while exploiting
resources and undertaking construction in national autonomous areas, the
organizations or individuals shall take effective measures to protect and
improve local living and ecological environment and to prevent and control
pollution and other public hazards.]
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